Living with Volcanoes

Despite the well known hazards associated with volcanic eruptions, it is estimated that 360 million people still live in volcanically active areas. So why do people still live near volcanoes?

Reason: Fertile Soils
Explanation: Volcanic soils are some of the most fertile in the world due to the weathering of volcanic products such as ash lava and rock, which release valuable nutrients and minerals which enrich the soil as well as improving soil characteristics such as moisture retention. In tropical areas in particular, for example Hawaii, climate conditions mean that the weathering of lava etc. is fairly quick resulting in the growth of lush vegetation due to the rapid soil formation. As volcanic areas are therefore ideal for growing crops, they attract large populations.
Example: In Java (Indonesia) some of the best rice growing areas are in the shadow of volcanoes such as Mt Merapi which attract large numbers due to the rich farming opportunities (1 million live within 20 miles of Merapi). Likewise, in Italy large numbers live on the slopes of Vesuvius and Etna (one in five Sicilians are belived to live on the slopes of Etna) due to the fertile soils which provide rich opportunities for growing products such as Olives and fruit.

Reason: Geothermal Energy
Explanation: Heat from magma sources close to the surface in volcanic areas can be used as a source of Geothermal energy which can be harnessed to produce electricity. In these instances, superheated steam, created by the heating of water in permeable rocks in magma can be used to drive turbines. This use of energy is renewable and sustainable, it has the added advantage of being pollution free.
Example: Over 20 countries around the world generate geothermal power, including the US, Italy, New Zealand and Iceland. In fact 17% of Iceland's electricity is created in this way.
In farming areas around Reykjavik (Iceland), geothermal energy is also used to heat greenhouses enabling the growing of fruit, vegetables and flowers.

Reason: Tourism
Explanation: Due to the spectacular scenery associated with volcanic landscapes and unique features such as lava flows and geyers, volcanoes, particularly those having experienced recent eruptive activity are particularly popular with tourists. This is a huge economic benefit due to the resulting multiplier effect. Tourism attracts curstom for businesses such as hotel, cafes etc. creating jobs and improving the local economy.
Example: Yellowstone National Park in the USA with the famous Old Faithful geyser receives around 3 million visitors a year. Iceland is famous for its volcanic landscpae and its hot springs and geysers have attracted many tourists. The Blue Lagoon, near Reykjavik is a spa popular with tourists for its known positive effectives on the skin.

Reason: Minerals
Explanation: Valuable minerals such as copper, gold, silver, lead, zinc and even diamonds are all associated with volanic regions as they are associated with the rising magma which may cool and harden beneath the volcano. As hot water circulate within the cooled magma, the metals are taken by the water and re-deposited in greater concentrations. Thus volcanic areas are excellent areas for mining creating economic activites through job opportunities and the value of the mined minerals.
Example: Copper, Gold and Silver mining began around Mount St Helens as early as 1892.

Reason: Apathy / Unwillingness to Leave Home
Explanation: Due to the infrequency of some volcanic eruptions, some people, particularly those who have not experienced a volcanic eruption in their lifetime are reluctant to leave their homes in order to move to safety and ignore warning, preferring to live with the threat of a volcanic eruption. Some believe that there will be time to move / be resuced should an eruption begin.
Example: Harry Truman was an 83 years old man who lived by Spirit Lake in the Shadow of Mount St Helens. He died in the 1980 eruption due to his failure to heed the warnings of the government and evacuate the area.

Reason: Lack of Choice
It should also be recognised that some people have no choice but to live in these areas. In areas of poverty, people do not have the resources available to move and for many farming on the fertile soils in the shadow of a volcano may be the only livelihood they know.

Follow up Links:
USGS - The "Plus Side" of Volcanoes
Geography Pages - Benefits of Living in Volcanic Areas (thanks to Alan Parkinson)

Photo Source: USGS

Volcanoes

Volcanoes are simply vents at the earth's surface through which lava and other volcanic products are erupted. Although many volcanoes are cone-shaped, different types of volcano exist according to their location and the products they are made up of.

The distribution of volcanoes
Volcanoes occur in narrow, linear belts and are mostly found along destructive boundaries with large numbers found around the Pacific Ring of Fire (the area marking the boundary of the Pacific plate). They are also found at constructive plate margins such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. An exception to the general distribution of volcanoes is those found in the middle of the Pacific Plate (the Hawiian islands) which are formed due to hotspot activity.

As well as describing the distribution of volcanoes you will need to be able to describe and explain their occurence at plate boundaries:

Volcanoes at Destructive Boundaries:
1. Plates move together due to convection currents
2. Heavier oceanic plate is subduced
3. Friction between the plates and heat from the interior causes the subducting plate to met
4. Melting of the plate creates molten magma
5. This magma is less dense than its surrounding and therefore rises and is erupted at the surface through a weakness in the crust creating a volcano.
6. Volcanoes at Destructive boundaries tend to be quite explosive due to the build up of pressure and gases.

Volcanoes at Constructive Boundaries:
1. Plates move away from each other due to convection currents
2. This creates a weakness / 'gap' in the crust
3. Magma is a able to rise to plug the gap forming lava flows and submarine volcanoes
4. As magma continues to build up above the surface of the ocean, volcanic islands (such as Surtsey) may form.
5. Eruptions at constructive boundaries tend to be gentle with little pressure build up

Volcanoes at Hotspots:
As mentioned in the last post, volcanoes may also be created at Hotspots - for example the Hawaiian Islands (with volcanoes such as Kilauea). See this animation as a reminder of how hotspot activity can result in the formation of volcanoes.

Structure of a Volcano:

Some Volcanic eruptions are more explosive than others due to the type of magma. At destructive margins andesitic magma gives rise to acid lava which is thick and sticky. As gases can't escape easily pressure builds up resulting in violent explosions.

In contrast at constructive margins, basaltic lava gives rise to basic lava which is thin and runny and from which gases escape easily. These eruptions are therefore more gentle in nature and less explosive.

Follow up Links:
Some great images and information on individual volcanoes at Volcano World
Animation - eruption of a stratovolcano (Savage Earth)
Volcanoes Online - a detailed source of information on types of volcanoes

Key Term Check:
Volcano - a vent on the earth's surface through which lava erupts
Hotspot - a thermal plume of magma which rises underneath a tectonic plate
Magma Chamber - an underground chamber storing molten rock
Secondary Crater - a small crater often cut into the side of a large cone (may form due to a blockage in the main cone)
Crater - a large opening at the top of a volcano from which gases, lava and ash etc. escape
Vent - pipe taking magma towards the main crater
Pyroclastic Flow - a cloud of burning ash, gases and other volcanic material which can travel downslope at great speeds.
Volcanic Bombs - large, hot boulders ejected during an eruption
Magma - molten rock under the ground
Lava - molten rock which reaches the ground surface

The photographs in this post are courtesy of the USGS

Plate Boundaries

Plate Boundaries

The point at which two tectonic plates meet is called a plate boundary. It is at these locations where tectonic activity results in earthquakes, volcanoes and the formation of mountain ranges due to the movement of the plates. The diagram below shows the major plates and their boundaries. The arrows indicate the direction of movement at each plate. It is the direction of movement as well as the difference in crust which determine the variations in processes and landforms at the different plate boundaries. (animation from USGS)

There are a number of different types of plate boundaries. For each plate boundary you will need to be able to describe (i) the movement (ii) processes which occur and (iii) an example

1. DESTRUCTIVE BOUNDARY (also known as a convergent boundary)
Movement: Two plates moving towards each other (continental and oceanic crust)
(note where two oceanic plates meet one will be subducted and an island arc will form)

Processes: The denser oceanic crust is subducted underneath the continental crust forming a subduction zone and oceanic trench. As it is subducted it melts due to heat and pressure. The heat sources are friction between the two plates and from the earth's interior. Melting of the subducting plates creates magma which is lighter than the mantle and therefore rises resulting in the formation of volcanoes. Earthquakes also occur at this type of boundary due to the friction and pressure during subduction.

Landforms Created: Fold Mountains and Ocean Trench

Example: South American and Nazca Plates (forming the Andes and a deep sea trench (Peru-Chile trench))

Animation: click here to see an animation of the processes at a destructive plate boundary (with thanks to Wycombe High School)

2. CONSTRUCTIVE BOUNDARY (also known as a divergent boundary)
Movement: two plates moving away from each other (see animation opposite - courtesy of USGS)

Processes: As the two plates separate, hot magma is able to rise to fill the 'gap' creating new crust. As magma continues to build up, new mountain ranges form under the sea creating a mid-oceanic ridge. Where rising magma continues to build up above the ocean surface, a volcanic island is formed (for example Surtsey, Iceland). Both earthquakes and volcanoes occur at this type of boundary.

Landforms Created: Ocean Ridge; Volcanic Islands

Example: North American and Eurasian Plate - (forming the Mid-Atlantic Ridge)

Animation: click here to see an animation of the processes at a constructive plate boundary

3. COLLISION BOUNDARY
Movement: two plates moving towards each other (both continental crust)

Processes: As both plates consist of continental crust they both resist subduction and buckle and fold, being forced upwards to create fold mountains, such as the Himalayas. Although there is no volcanic activity at these locations, due to the forces of collision major earthquakes often occur here.

Example: Indo-Australian and Eurasian Plate (forming the Himalayas)
Animation: Click here to see an animation of the processes at a collision boundary

4. CONSERVATIVE BOUNDARY
Movement: two plates moving alongside each other

Processes: crust is neither created or destroyed here but as both pressure and friction results during the movement of the plates side by side, a 'stick-slip' motion results in the creation of significant earthquakes. Pressures builds up due to friction between the plates and when the plates break apart the energy is sent through the earth as seismic waves in the form of an earthquake.

Example: San Andreas Fault - North American and Pacific Plates

Animation: See this BBC visualisation of the San Andreas Fault conservative boundary

HOTSPOTS
You should be aware that whilst most volcanoes / earthquakes occur along plate boundaries, there are exceptions. For example the volcanic Hawaiian islands which can be found in the middle of the Pacific Plate are formed due to a Hotspot. Hotspots are plumes of molten rock which rise underneath a plate causing localised melting and the creation of magma resulting in volcanic activity. See this animation for further explanation of hotspot activity.

Follow up Links
An excellent site from the USGS called "Understanding Plate Motions" provides further information
A Flash animation showing the major plate boundaries.
Plate Tectonics on Wikipedia also provides a good overview of the processes at plate boundaries

Key Term Check
Constructive Boundary (Divergent) - where two plates move away from each other resulting in new crust being formed.
Destructive Boundary (Convergent) - where two plates move towards each other - in the case of a plate consisting of continental crust meeting a plate consisting of oceanic crust, the oceanic crust will be subducted and destroyed as it is less dense.
Conservative Boundary - where two plates move alongside each other - although crust is neither created or destroyed here, earthquakes usually occur here.
Collision Boundary - where two plates of continental crust move towards each other creating fold mountains.
Volcano - a vent through which lava, ash etc. is erupted (often, but not always cone-shaped)
Earthquake - a sudden ground movement